To determine the concentration Essay Example for Free

To determine the concentration Essay To determine the concentration of unknown standard sodium hydroxide solution and the enthalpy change of neutralization between different pairs of acid-base used (Thermometric titration) Principle of method: Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, which is an exothermic reaction. In this experiment, two methods are used to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution and the enthalpy change of neutralization. H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) Method 1 is to measure the temperature change of the reaction mixture when different definite ratio of acid and base are reacted. There are totally 7 ratios. For each ratio, the initial temperature of acid and base is recorded. When they are mixed, the final temperature of the mixture is recorded so that: Let Va, Vb, Ta, Tb, T be the volume of acid, volume of base, initial temperature of acid, initial temperature of base and final temperature of mixture if they are not reacted (which is actually the initial temperature of mixture before reaction) respectively. Thus, Final temperature of the mixture after reacted T = Temperature change due to reaction. Method 2 is to measure the temperature of the reaction mixture when each small portion of acid are added to a fixed amount of base solution with using titration of acid against base. For both of the method, different pairs of acid and base are used and compared. To find the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution, the volume ratio of acid to base which makes the maximum temperature change(which means the reaction is most complete) should be found out and so: (Since the basicity of both acid and base is 1) By conservation of energy, the enthalpy change of neutralization = heat change of solution The density and specific heat capacity of solution are assumed to be equal to those of water since the differences between them are negligible. Results: Method 1 Using nitric acid: (A graph is attached at page 6) Volume of HNO3(aq) (cThis result was acceptable since it was consistent and close to the actual value. The enthalpy change of neutralization using nitric acid was found to be -47. 65kJ and -51. 48kJ respectively by method 12. The enthalpy change of neutralization using ethanoic acid was found to be -48. 24kJ and -61. 11kJ respectively by method 12. The enthalpy of neutralization found out in this experiment was not reliable because the result was not consistent for method 12 and there were great errors in the experiment. The most significant evidence that shows the result was not reliable was that theoretically, the enthalpy change of neutralization between ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide should never be higher than that between nitric acid and sodium hydroxide. This is because nitric acid is a strong acid while ethanoic acid is just a weak acid that it only slightly ionized in water. Therefore extra energy was needed to ionize the ethanoic acid molecules so that the enthalpy change of neutralization of ethanoic acid should be less negative than that of nitric acid. However the result of this experiment contradicted with the above statement, so that the results of this experiment were not reliable. The most significant error in this experiment was heat loss to surrounding. Although foam cup was already used in the experiment, the upper surface of solution also produced great heat loss to the atmosphere. Also, there may still be heat loss through the cup. This error was more significant in method 2 since a period of time was used to titrate the solution. During the time of titration, a lot of heat can be transferred to the air and thus the recorded temperature would be decreased. As a result, the calculated enthalpy change of neutralization would be lower than the actual one. To reduce this error, a Styrofoam cup instead of a polystyrene cup can be used since Styrofoam is a better insular of heat than polystyrene. Some cotton wool can be used to wrap the cup in order to further reduce the heat loss to surrounding. Also, a lid can be used to cover the upper mouth of the cup in order to reduce the heat loss to surrounding. However, the lid should allow the thermometer to stir the solution and also allow the burette to add acids into it in method 2. Obviously, the titration in method 2 must be carried out quickly in order to minimize the time for the heat to be lost from surrounding, and thus reduce the above error. The second error was the fluctuation of room temperature. In method 1, the initial temperature measured and the temperature of the solution just before reaction might be different. This was because of the change in room temperature since it would affect the temperature of solution by thermo equilibrium. In method 2, the room temperature before the titration and during the titration might be different. This would lead to an error on the measurement of temperature as the same case in method 1. To reduce this error, a more constant temperature in the laboratory can be constructed by an air-conditioner. This can reduce the error brought from the fluctuation of room temperature. In the experiment, method 1 is more suitable to determine the enthalpy change of neutralization since the temperature was measured just after the reaction in method 1 but the temperature was measured for several times in method 2 and this lead to error in the measure of temperature. However, method 2 is more suitable to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution since the number of times of measuring the temperature of solution was much more than that in method 1. Then the peak of the graph can be found out more accurately. Thus the volume of acid used with the highest temperature change can be more accurate. Based on the results of this experiment, the enthalpy change of neutralization was more negative with weaker acids, having same base. However, this statement was obviously wrong since in weaker acids, some energy was used to ionize the acid molecules. Theoretically, the enthalpy change of neutralization should be more negative with stronger acids. This was not shown on the results in this experiment since the error was too large. Conclusion: The concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution was successively found out and it was acceptable, but the enthalpy of neutralization found out was not reliable since it was not consistent and it contradicted to the theoretical values. On the whole, the results was not acceptable and so the objective of this experiment was not fulfilled. Reference: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Styrofoam http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/polystyrene.

Laurel Ulrichs A Midwifes Tale Essay -- Laurel Ulrich Midwife Tale E

Laurel Ulrich's A Midwife's Tale   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before I watched 'A Midwife's Tale', a movie created from the diary found by Laurel Ulrich chronicling the life of a woman named Martha Ballard, I thought the women in these times were just housewives and nothing else. I pictured them doing the cleaning and the cooking for their husbands and not being very smart because of the lack of education or them being unable to work. My view on the subject changed however when I watched this specific woman's life and her work.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To know that there was a woman such as Martha back in those days is very interesting to me because I especially did not think there were women who were as brave and independent as she was. The lives of women in general, not just in Martha?s case, were busy and at sometimes hard during these times. They had to do an array of things from keeping the house under control and raising sometimes several children to working on a farm and spinning. Sometimes, some women would even work to make a second living for the family, as in Martha?s case. And even though the women were able to work, they still did not hold as much power as men did, which is still evident today. And if the women were recognized as much as they should be I?m sure we wouldn?t need a completely different subject for Women?s History because they would cover it in the regular history classes, instead of the subject consisting of 99.9% males.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Martha?s day was a pretty long one and consisted of many jobs to do, anything from cleaning the house to delivering a baby. The fact that she never lost a mother during any of the childbirths is astonishing in itself since it was the number one cause of death in women. Among those jobs she also spun, raised her children, worked on her farm, and treated illnesses, coming up with her own remedies. For example when Parthenia was sick and she had her drink the last milk from the cow in hopes of her getting better which unfortunately she wasn?t able to make her get better and Parthenia died. Martha?s own children however all lived into their adulthood which was also a very rare thing to add to her list of unique facts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although Martha did have different jobs to do, her real job was being a midwife. She got paid high for a woman at this time and she was a well respected person in the town. This job was the most demanding and it?s not like... ...because I probably would have if my kid took over my house and I missed my husband.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Martha Ballard died, she was definitely missed and even though her diary sat in the back stacks of a library for a very long time because authors thought it was useless, her story was told and it was a good one at that. It wouldn?t be a surprise to me if her story has inspired women and I know it has definitely educated people about women?s lives at this time. It?s just a shame that more women?s stories from this time will never be told. I?ve learned from Martha Ballard?s story that she must have been a very good, decent, and smart woman and I would have loved to have met her. She is a good example of what some women were like back then and it?s good to see that not all of them were powerless housewives as some people think and how I, myself, thought before I saw this movie. I saw her struggle and her get through the hard times. The things she had to live through throughout her life were astonishing and I?m really glad I got to see this woman?s work. I realiz ed how easy we have it now and how women like Martha paved the way for us and we have to appreciate them for what they?ve done.

Informed consent is a process

Informed consent is a process by which the physician obtains authorization from the patient to undergo a particular medical intervention, after explaining the details, its benefits and the risks, and existence of any available alternative, in a manner which the patient comprehends the best.   It can be oral or written, and can be implied (situation arises in which a consent has to be given) or expressed (consent which is specifically mentioned).   A physician has to obtain informed consent before performing any procedure. A procedure carried out without the patient’s knowledge, or any deviation in the intervention carried out, without informing the patient amounts to ‘battery’ (a tort of causing harm deliberately).   However, there are certain circumstance under which informed consent need not or cannot be obtained, including public health situations, medical emergencies, incompetence of the patient, therapeutic privilege or a voluntary relinquishment from the patient. In a public health emergency, consent form the individual is not mandatory as a clash between the patient’s rights and the public rights; would result in the rights of the public prevailing (as more number or people would be affected).   In such emergencies, it may be required to treat or quarantine people, sometimes against their will. During a medical emergency, consent is usually not required, because in such situations the patient is unable to give one.   Obtaining consent may in fact take a lot of time and may delay life-saving procedures.   Studies have shown that consent obtained from patient’s requiring emergency care often lead to development of fear.   Some people felt that in such situations they were more often left without any choice.   Other studies have shown that physicians are more likely to do something beneficially for the patient, in such situations. A physician need not obtain consent from a patient, if he perceives that he/she is incompetent to make a decision about their good health.   Treatment provided in such situations would be deemed as ‘in the best interests of the patient’.   In some cases, the patient may have a condition that affects his/her thinking abilities.   However, if the physician feels that the patient’s condition is not going affect his/her decision-making abut health; then it would always be better to obtain prior consent. Therapeutic privilege is a condition in which the physician need not inform the patient about certain issues in an effort to prevent further harm to the patient.   A physician need not inform the patient if he/she feels that it can cause unnecessary mental tensions.   However, this benefit is often misused by physicians. Some patients may voluntarily give up their rights to give consent, and instead allow the physician to perform the necessary procedures.   In such situations, informed consent is usually not necessary. Consent is usually not needed for routine or minor interventions, as the physician may feel that it is usually implied, considering the fact that the patient has come forward seeking medical care.   However, for interventions in which the risks are significantly higher, consent is mandatory. References: Akkada, Andrea, Jacksona, Clare, Kenyona, Sara, Dixon-Woodsb, Mary, Taubb, Nick , & Habibaa, Marwan (2004). â€Å"Informed consent for elective and emergency surgery: questionnaire study.† BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 111(100), 1133. Foà «x, B. A. (2001). â€Å"The problem of informed consent in emergency medicine research.† Emergency Medicine Journal, 18, 198-204 http://emj.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/18/3/198   

Keeping People Well with Effective Public Health Practice

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